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Share this Australian chat app and help another people to meet friends around the world. Now you can meet Indiana people or Australian chat friends. The league is a youth organisation for boys and girls from 8, formed in to foster a spirit of aviation and promote good citizenship in Australian youth. Cadets are given opportunities to join the squadron band, learn ceremonial drill and aviation theory, do physical activities, modelling and camping and make new friends.

Members 14 and over have the chance to learn to fly at Camden Air Activities Centre with qualified volunteer instructors. Home News Local News. Lachlan acted as the Squadron Commanding Officer for the occasion. In particular, T. There have been arguments based on fossils and molecular data that ornithorhynchids and tachyglossids may have diverged from one another prior to the Cenozoic Pridmore et al.

However, there are counter arguments that Ornithorhynchidae may well be paraphyletic, with tachyglossids having evolved from ancestral ornithorhynchids sometime during the Cenozoic Pascual et al. Unfortunately, because of a lack of fossil tachyglossids more plesiomorphic than the extant long-beaked Zaglossus spp. Taken together Fig. Overall, the record appears to be one of continuous geographic and taxonomic decline with representatives disappearing from Patagonia within the last 60 million years and from most of mainland Australia, apart from the relatively well-watered eastern coast, within approximately the last 15 million years Fig.

Of the five ornithorhynchid species identified over the last 63 million years, only one survives today. At the same time, ornithorhynchids have evolved morphologically, transforming from cranially robust, toothed forms in the Miocene to cranially fused skulls lacking adult teeth in extant O. Although juveniles have rudimentary, poorly formed, rootless molar teeth, these are shed about a month after the young leave the nesting burrow Griffiths From a paleontological perspective, lineages that undergo declines over time of this magnitude in geographic distribution, species diversity, and functional morphology are more likely to suffer extinction than lineages that exhibit increasing geographic distribution, taxonomic diversity, and non-degenerating morphology Archer et al.

However, there is no evidence based on fossil biochronology that echidnas even existed as a distinct family prior to about 15 Mya. Given that O. The phylogeography and population structure of extant platypuses have been investigated using retrotransposon, mtDNA, and microsatellite loci Akiyama ; Warren et al. These studies found that river basins act as discrete population units on the Australian mainland, with greater differences between than within river systems Gemmell and Westerman ; Akiyama ; Kolomyjec et al.

However, there is little genetic differentiation between platypuses on either side of the Great Dividing Range in Victoria Furlan et al. Genetic studies also indicate limited gene flow between proximal rivers on the mainland, in contrast to Tasmania where there is less genetic structuring Kolomyjec et al.

At the regional level, two divergent evolutionary groups have been identified, one from mainland Australia and the other from Tasmania—King Island Akiyama ; Warren et al. This split may have occurred on mainland Australia before platypuses colonized Tasmania. Furthermore, across the modern range of the platypus, a considerable level of differentiation has been found, with three to four phylogenetic clades based on mtDNA: New South Wales—Victoria, central Queensland, north Queensland, and Tasmania Gongora et al. This conclusion is consistent with the number of significant units that have been defined based on microsatellites and whole-genome sequencing Kolomyjec et al.

The recent whole-genome sequencing of 57 platypuses from populations sampled throughout the range of the species confirms a very strong genetic structure in the platypus O. In addition, these analyses suggest a historical genetic bottleneck in both north and central Queensland populations. In contrast, individuals from New South Wales appear to have had higher and relatively stable genetic diversity through their history. Furthermore, it was possible to establish the relatedness among 28 of the individuals from the same river system and estimate a de novo mutation rate of 4.

However, at finer geographical scales, size variation is confounded by inconsistencies, suggesting involvement of other environmental factors Kolomyjec ; Furlan et al. The maximum recorded longevity in the wild is 21 and 25 years in captivity J. Thomas, pers. The pelage consists of an undercoat of dense, short, and finely kinked hairs and an outer layer of spatulate-shaped guard hairs. The underfur retains air during dives, providing efficient insulation against heat loss, which is aided by a counter-current heat exchange in the cardiovascular system supplying the bare extremities Grant and Dawson Skin furrows on each side of the head house both the eye and the external ear opening.

When submerged these furrows close, as do the nostrils, so that the senses of sight, hearing, and olfaction are absent or reduced Burrell The auditory and visual areas of the cerebral cortex are relatively small compared to those receiving neural input from the bill Bohringer and Rowe The retina is rod-dominated with some red and blue cones, rhodopsin is the dominant pigment, and there are double cones not found in marsupials or eutherians Griffiths ; Zeiss et al.

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Observations of the platypus in the wild suggest acute eyesight, especially sensitive to movement Burrell The ear is encased in cartilage rather than bone Griffiths , there is no external pinna, and no obvious mechanism to conduct water-borne sound to the inner ear Pettigrew et al. The cochlea is less sensitive than in other mammals, being most sensitive to frequencies around 4 kHz but responding to frequencies up to 15 kHz Gates et al. Platypuses have a pair of cervical scent glands that produce a musky odor and increase in size during the breeding season, suggesting an olfactory role in reproduction Temple-Smith Olfaction is unlikely to be important in foraging, as the nares are closed when the platypus is submerged.

However, considerable genetic representation of the vomeronasal system has been identified in the platypus genome Grus et al. Specialized sensory structures housed in pores on the skin over the bill and frontal shield are supplied by the trigeminal nerve. Longitudinal rows of these electroreceptors, and uniformly distributed mechanoreceptors, provide electric and tactile senses, presumed to allow platypuses to navigate and locate weak electric fields produced by macroinvertebrate prey species Scheich et al.

Although the electric field strengths of common prey species are not within the range detectable by the electroreceptors Taylor et al. Discerning prey direction and location may be achieved by comparing signal strength during side-to-side movements of the bill, along with the input from mechanoreceptors Pettigrew et al. Compared to other mammals, the platypus has a high hematocrit, erythrocyte count, and hemoglobin level, a low mean corpuscular volume, and a high mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, which suggests an adaptation to avoid hypoxia during diving Whittington and Grant ; Evans et al.

Blood oxygen levels fall rapidly during diving, with rapid restoration of arterial O 2 saturation following dives Johansen et al. Dives have an aerobic limit of 40—59 s Bethge et al. A pair of cheek pouches lateral to the maxillary and mandibular keratinous grinding pads, which replace the juvenile teeth, store prey items collected underwater for mastication on return to the surface Griffiths The digestive tract is relatively short, and its structure is simple Harrop and Hume Both the oesophagus and presumptive stomach are small, thin-walled, and lined with non-keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium.

The short small intestine has no villi, but groups of intestinal glands drain into lumena between these numerous surface folds Krause , and the general structure of the pancreas is similar to other mammals He et al. A small caecum Hill and Rewell joins the short large intestine, which connects to the rectum, which is of greater diameter than the rest of the tract.

Little is known about digestive physiology in platypuses although the diet suggests high proteolytic activity in the secretions of both the pancreas and the intestinal wall Harrop and Hume Unlike most aquatic mammals, the platypus swims using alternate strokes of its large webbed front limbs, swimming at 0. Collecting predominantly small organisms on each short dive, foraging normally lasts for 8—16 h per day Serena ; Gust and Handasyde ; Otley et al.

Male platypuses are one of few extant venomous mammals Ligabue-Braun et al. They have paired venom glands on the dorsocaudal surface of the pelvis, connected via ducts to hollow, keratinous extratarsal spurs on each hind leg; juvenile females have vestigial spur sheaths, lost within the first year of life Temple-Smith ; Grant and Fanning ; Williams et al. The male venom gland may be a derived sweat gland, which enlarges during the breeding season along with increased venom production and male aggressiveness Temple-Smith Although the spurs and venom may have had a defensive function in evolutionary history, as hypothesized for Mesozoic mammals Ligabue-Braun et al.

The venom has a chemically complex composition de Plater et al. Venom may have a primarily reproductive function, when males fight each other over access to breeding females, as indicated by cyclic venom production Temple-Smith ; Whittington and Belov and fresh spur wounds and possible temporary partial paralysis in envenomated males during the breeding season Fleay ; Temple-Smith Spur wounds heal, indicating that intraspecific envenomation hampers or temporarily disables competitors; death has been recorded only in captive conditions due to multiple spurring Temple-Smith ; Grant and Fanning The venom causes excruciating local pain in humans that can effectively be reduced using a nerve blocker Temple-Smith ; Fenner et al.

Platypus venom may provide clinically useful substances and improve understanding and treatment of novel pain pathways Fenner et al. Platypuses are amphibious, inhabiting creeks, rivers, shallow lakes, wetlands, and their riparian margins, in agricultural land, urban areas, and natural environments Connolly et al.

Home ranges vary spatially and temporally with breeding season, age, and sex Grant et al. Preferred habitat tends to include consolidated earth banks with large trees in the riparian zone, vegetation overhanging the stream channel, wide streams with in-stream organic matter, shallow pools, coarse woody debris, and coarse channel substrates, but platypuses still occur in habitats without some of these features, often in quite degraded agricultural settings Rohweder ; Bryant ; Ellem et al.

In a Tasmanian study Lunn , catchment-scale factors e. This result highlights the importance of considering multiple spatial scales in any research into the effect of ecological disturbance on platypuses. Platypuses feed exclusively in the water and rest in burrows, typically in the banks of waterbodies Grant et al. Their activity patterns follow a circadian rhythm, cued by light Otley ; Francis et al. Platypuses are predominantly nocturnal Grant et al. Individuals may also sometimes align activity patterns with the lunar cycle, synchronizing with moonrise and moonset Bethge ; Bethge et al.

Activity levels also vary throughout the year.

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In a lake in northern Tasmania, platypuses were most active between late winter and early spring, and least active in mid-summer. Peak activity coincided with the breeding season, mate searching, and increased foraging by lactating females in late spring—summer Bethge Interactions between platypuses may also affect temporal partitioning of movements Hawkins ; Bethge et al.

In particular, it has been posited that subordinate individuals may tend to adopt a more variable or fragmented activity pattern or spend relatively more time active during daylight hours Gust and Handasyde ; Hawkins ; Bethge et al. Most adults appear to maintain reasonably stable home ranges over periods up to several years but these can vary in size between 0.

However, during lactation, females have sometimes been found to forage over larger areas than those used by males Griffiths et al. In a subalpine Tasmanian lake, radiotagged individuals occupied areas of 2—58 ha over periods of 22—90 days Otley et al. Juvenile males have been found to travel greater distances Bino et al. Although animals typically use only a fraction e. Platypuses occasionally move overland between water bodies Taylor et al. The platypus has a distinctive foraging behavior Bethge and almost complete reliance on aquatic invertebrates as a food source Faragher et al.

Platypuses forage in both slow-moving pools and faster-moving riffles within streams, and prefer depths of less than 5 m and coarse bottom substrates Serena et al.


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Analysis of stomach contents provides little insight into diet and feeding habits of platypuses. Ejection of chitinous parts of macroinvertebrates and crustacean exoskeletons during mastication produces a fine particulate matter that lacks identifiable structures. Most of the useful information on diet has been obtained from analysis of cheek pouch contents. Both sexes feed opportunistically on a similarly wide range of benthic macroinvertebrates of varying sizes McLachlan-Troup et al.

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Platypus diets are often dominated by relatively large aquatic macroinvertebrates from the orders Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, and Odonata Faragher et al. Diets including small prey may reflect reduced abundance of preferred larger prey items or increased abundance of smaller items Marchant and Grant Platypuses also feed on freshwater crayfish normally genus Cherax in captivity and on members of this and other genera in the wild, although this is less common Krueger et al.

The platypus can exert top-down influence in aquatic environments, but to a variable extent McLachlan-Troup For example, platypuses were found to feed at a low trophic level during drought and on few items in urban environments, indicated by a narrower isotopic niche width as compared to agricultural and forested areas Klamt Understanding how these relationships vary temporally and spatially in relation to different environmental conditions, invertebrate biomass, and productivity is still lacking Marchant and Grant Platypuses are seasonal breeders, breeding earlier in lower latitudes Munks et al.

In New South Wales, breeding, with the onset of courtship followed by nesting behavior by females, begins around August and continues until young emerge from nesting burrows the following late January to early March. By comparison, in Tasmania, breeding starts 2 months later Connolly and Obendorf ; Munks et al. During courtship, female and male platypuses engage in a dance, during which the male holds the tail of the female with his bill, and the female leads them both through a series of slow circles, twists, and turns on the surface of the water, followed by mating Holland and Jackson ; Hawkins and Battaglia ; Thomas et al.

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In captivity, reproductive behavior is controlled by the female Thomas et al. Platypus milk contains an antimicrobial protein unique to monotremes, monotreme lactation protein MLP , which likely evolved to mitigate microbial infection in response to the lack of nipples Enjapoori et al. Two nest-like mounds had a dry recess, along a stream cave in Tasmania, which was made of fibrous roots and small amounts of leaf material and branchlets of moss Munks et al.